Living Śāstra & modern scientific encounters

The scientific heritage of the Indian subcontinent did not end with classical Sanskrit treatises or medieval Kerala manuscripts. In the early modern and modern eras, Indian scientists encountered European science, engaging in creative synthesis, original laboratory discoveries, and technological engineering.¹

From the monumental naked-eye observatories of Sawai Jai Singh II to Srinivasa Ramanujan, Sir C.V. Raman, and Jagadish Chandra Bose, Indian thinkers made contributions to global physics, mathematics, and engineering.

1. Sawai Jai Singh II and the Jantar Mantars (from c. 1724 CE)

In the early 18th century, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur recognized that small brass instruments suffered from mechanical wear, leading to observational errors in calendar calculation:

• To achieve greater precision, he constructed five masonry astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantars) in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura.²
• The Samrāt Yantra (Supreme Instrument) at Jaipur is one of the world’s largest sundials, standing 27 meters high. Its gigantic gnomon casts a shadow that moves at a rate of 1 millimeter per second, measuring local solar time reputedly to about two seconds.
• Jai Singh’s astronomical work drew on Ptolemaic, Islamic, and Hindu astronomical traditions.

2. Srinivasa Ramanujan: Intuition and Mathematical Analysis (1887–1920)

Born in Erode (Tamil Nadu) without formal higher mathematical training, Srinivasa Ramanujan made lasting contributions to number theory:

• Infinite Series for π: In 1914, Ramanujan published 17 rapidly converging series for 1/π. These formulas express the reciprocal of π as an infinite sum whose terms become small very quickly. In one celebrated formula, each additional term adds about 8 correct decimal places of π, forming the basis for modern computer algorithms that compute billions of digits of π.³
• Partition Functions and Modular Forms: Collaborating with G.H. Hardy at Cambridge, Ramanujan derived the asymptotic formula for the partition function p(n), and formulated mock theta functions on his deathbed — later connected to modern number theory and to some string-theory calculations of black holes.⁴

3. C.V. Raman, J.C. Bose, and Classical Indian Physics

During the colonial era, Indian physicists investigated indigenous musical instruments and plant responses using rigorous experimental methods:

• C.V. Raman and Drum Acoustics: Sir C.V. Raman investigated why Indian percussion instruments — the Mridangam and Tabla — produce musical, harmonic overtones. C.V. Raman and Sivakali Kumar reported in Nature (1920) that the loaded drumhead of Indian drums gives overtones in harmonic relation to the fundamental.⁵
• Jagadish Chandra Bose and Biophysics: J.C. Bose worked on millimeter-wave microwave radio optics (1895) and invented the Crescograph to measure plant growth; his plant studies argued that plants show electrical responses resembling those of animal tissue.⁶

4. Contemporary Indian Science: Space and Digital Engineering

In the post-independence era, India built large-scale scientific institutions:

• Space Science (ISRO): Developing cost-effective indigenous rocket propulsion (PSLV/GSLV), lunar exploration (Chandrayaan-3 landing near the lunar south pole, 2023), and interplanetary missions (Mars Orbiter Mission).
• Vaccine & Pharmaceutical Manufacturing: Supplying a large share of the world’s vaccines and affordable generic therapeutics through manufacturers like the Serum Institute and Bharat Biotech.

Four terms to carry forward

What this chapter does not claim

1. That Jai Singh’s masonry observatories were superior to European telescopes; while designed for naked-eye position measurement, they were surpassed in angular resolution by instruments with optical lenses.
2. That Ramanujan’s equations were revelations without mathematical structure; though Ramanujan attributed his formulas to the goddess Namagiri, his work represents extraordinary intuitive pattern recognition and formal manipulation.
3. That classical science explains all modern physics; modern Indian science succeeded by combining classical observation with the empirical scientific method.
4. That Indian scientific institutions are without structural challenges; funding, lab infrastructure, and basic research education remain ongoing national priorities.

Sources and further reading

Version 0.4 · September 2026 · Editorial orientation · Reading list provided · Not expert-reviewed. Corrected after an editorial audit in September 2026.